A documentary film is a nonfiction motion picture that records aspects of reality to inform, educate, or entertain its audience. It is distinct from fictional feature films because its content is rooted in real events, people, and issues, though the filmmaker's perspective always shapes the final narrative.
The term was first coined in the 1920s by Scottish educator and filmmaker John Grierson, who defined it as "the creative treatment of actuality
Key characteristics
Nonfiction content: Documentaries deal with factual information, real events, and real-life subjects. This can include interviews, archival footage, or on-location filming.
Purpose-driven: Documentaries are made with an intention to inform, persuade, or provide a new perspective on a topic.
Narrative structure: While based on reality, most documentaries still follow a narrative arc with a beginning, middle, and end. They use storytelling techniques to structure the factual material and engage the audience.
Point of view: A documentary is not entirely objective. The filmmaker's decisions—what to include, what to omit, and how to frame the subject—influence the film's message and how the audience interprets it.
Common modes of documentary filmmaking
Film critic Bill Nichols categorized documentaries into six distinct modes, though many films blend elements from different approaches.
Expository: This is the most traditional format. A "voice of God" narrator directly informs or persuades the viewer, guiding them through a clear argument. Visuals, interviews, and archival footage support the narration.
Examples: March of the Penguins (2005) and Ken Burns' The Dust Bowl (2012).
Observational: Adopting a "fly-on-the-wall" approach, this mode captures events as they unfold with minimal intervention. It typically avoids voice-over narration, allowing viewers to observe and draw their own conclusions.
Examples: Hoop Dreams (1994) and Primary (1960).
Participatory: The filmmaker becomes an active part of the film's narrative, interacting directly with the subjects. The documentary captures this engagement, acknowledging how the filmmaker's presence influences the situation.
Examples: Michael Moore's Bowling for Columbine (2002) and Chronicle of a Summer (1961).
Performative: These documentaries stress the filmmaker's subjective experience and personal story in connection with larger social or historical truths. They are often autobiographical and emotional.
Examples: Morgan Spurlock's Supersize Me (2004) and Marlon Riggs' Tongues Untied (1989).
Reflexive: This mode focuses on the filmmaking process itself, drawing attention to the construction of the documentary and the relationship between the filmmaker and audience. It encourages the viewer to question the nature of "truth" in filmmaking.
Examples: Dziga Vertov's Man with a Movie Camera (1929) and Orson Welles' F for Fake (1973).
Poetic: Moving away from a linear narrative, poetic documentaries are often impressionistic and experimental. They use creative associations of imagery and sound to create a specific mood or tone, giving priority to artistic expression over factual continuity.
Examples: Godfrey Reggio's Koyaanisqatsi (1982) and Joris Ivens' Rain (1929).
